Authors

Ayuba Elkanah Jatau

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Process Engineering and Technology, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria & Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Niger State Polytechnic Zungeru, Niger State, Nigeria

Isah Muhammad

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Process Engineering and Technology, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria & Dept. of Computer Engineering, Federal Polytechnic Kaltungo, Gombe State, Nigeria

Elkanah Bagudu Samuel

Department of Welding Engineering and Offshore Technology, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria

Abstract

Cracking in underwater welded joints remains a major obstacle to the reliable repair and fabrication of marine structures, offshore platforms, subsea pipelines and ship hulls. The problem is particularly severe in underwater wet welding, where direct contact between the welding arc, molten metal and surrounding water produces rapid cooling, hydrogen absorption, microstructural hardening and substantial residual stresses. This review critically examines the principal mechanisms of cracking in underwater welded joints, with particular emphasis on hydrogen-assisted cold cracking, heat-affected-zone cracking, weld-metal cracking and solidification-related defects. The interaction among diffusible hydrogen, steel hardenability, welding thermal cycles, restraint and residual stress is examined, alongside the influence of water depth, welding parameters, electrode composition and protective coatings. Evidence from experimental studies indicates that cracking susceptibility cannot be reliably predicted using steel composition or carbon-equivalent values alone; hydrogen concentration, local hardness, microstructure and stress conditions must also be considered. Established mitigation strategies, including hydrogen-control consumables, hydrophobic electrode coatings, induction heating, process optimisation and appropriate inspection procedures, are evaluated. Particular attention is given to the emerging opportunity to develop sustainable, agro-waste-derived electrode coatings, while recognising the need to validate their hydrogen-control performance, slag behaviour, arc stability and mechanical properties experimentally. The review identifies critical gaps in predictive modelling, delayed-crack assessment, standardised testing and the integration of machine learning with metallurgical evidence. A research framework is proposed for developing lower-cracking-risk underwater welding consumables and more reliable inspection and qualification procedures. The findings provide a technical basis for future experimental research and improved underwater welding practice.

Keywords

Underwater welding wet welding hydrogen-assisted cracking cold cracking heat-affected zone diffusible hydrogen electrode coating residual stress sustainable welding consumables marine structures

Citation of this Article

Ayuba Elkanah Jatau, Isah Muhammad, & Elkanah Bagudu Samuel. (2026). Cracking in Underwater Welded Joints: Mechanisms, Influencing Factors, Prevention Strategies and Emerging Sustainable Electrode Technologies - A Review. International Current Journal of Engineering and Science (ICJES), 5(11), 1-13. Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.47001/ICJES/2026.511001 

Licence Copyright (c) 2026 International Current Journal of Engineering and Science. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial 4.0 International Licence.

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